Teaching Knowledge Test Glossary _ University of Cambridge

University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations

Teaching

Knowledge

Test

Glossary

TKT GLOSSARY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING (ELT) TERMINOLOGY

The words in this glossary are alphabetically arranged. Entries are potentially relevant to all the TKT modules, both core and specialist. Candidates preparing for specific modules should, therefore, ensure that they are familiar with all the terms in the glossary. Candidates for all modules are also expected to be familiar with the PET Vocabulary List.

The entries included in the TKT Glossary are not intended to provide an authoritative or exhaustive list of Englishlanguage teaching terminology. This glossary has been compiled and reviewed by a panel of English language teaching experts and represents the teaching knowledge related to language, language use and the background to and practice of language teaching and learning as assessed in TKT.

Terms introduced with ► are for use in TKT: KAL exclusively.

A separate glossary is available for candidates preparing for TKT: CLIL.

Abbreviation

A short form of a word or phrase, e.g. in addresses, Rd is an abbreviation of Road. See acronym, contraction.

Abstract adjective

Relating to complex thoughts and ideas rather than simple, basic, concrete concepts. A text or language can be

abstract, e.g. words to express thoughts, feelings or complex ideas, which cannot be seen or touched, are often

abstract words. See concrete.

Academic adjective

Relating to schools, colleges and universities, or connected with studying and thinking.

Accuracy

The use of correct forms of grammar, vocabulary, spelling and pronunciation. In an accuracy activity, teachers and

learners typically focus on using and producing language correctly. See fluency.

Achievement noun, achieve verb, achievable adjective

Something reached by effort; something done successfully. Something which is achievable for learners is something

they can succeed in.

Achievement test: see test.

Acknowledge

To show that you have seen or understood something, e.g. the teacher acknowledged the learner’s answer with a

gesture.

Acquisition noun, acquire verb

To learn a language without studying it, just by hearing and/or reading and then using it. This is the way people

usually learn their first language.

► Acronym

A set of letters representing the first letters of two or more words, usually of a name or title. The letters are

pronounced as a word e.g. NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) radar (radio detection and ranging). N.B.

Acronyms are different from initialisms such as BBC, CD where the letters are pronounced as letters.

Action rhyme

A classroom activity using a rhyme which learners perform with accompanying actions. See Listen and

do/make/draw.

Activate previous knowledge

To get learners to think about and to say what they know about a topic. Teachers activate learners’ previous

knowledge when they are preparing learners to read or listen to a text. Research has demonstrated that when

learners’ previous knowledge is activated, reading and listening comprehension is increased. See arouse, generate,

stimulate interest.

Active role

When learners think about their own learning and what their own needs are and try to help themselves learn more,

they are taking an active role. See passive role.

Active voice

In an active sentence, the subject of the verb usually does or causes the action, e.g. The captain scored the winning

goal. See passive voice.

Activity-based learning

A way of learning by doing activities. The rules of language used in the activity are looked at either after the activity or

not at all.

Activity book: see book.

Adapt (material)

To change a text or other material, so that it is suitable to use with a particular class.

Adjective

An adjective describes or gives more information about a noun or pronoun, e.g. a cold day.

A comparative adjective compares two things, e.g. He is taller than she is.

A demonstrative adjective shows whether something is near or far from the speaker, e.g. this (near),

that (far).

An -ing/-ed adjective describes things or feelings. An -ing adjective describes things or people, e.g. The

book is very interesting. An -ed adjective describes feelings, e.g. I am very interested in the book.

A possessive adjective shows who something belongs to, e.g. my, our.

A superlative adjective compares more than two things, e.g. He is the tallest boy in the class.

► See gradable/ungradable.

Adverb

An adverb describes or gives more information about how, when, where, or to what degree etc something is done,

e.g. he worked quickly and well.

► Adverbial

A word, phrase or clause acting as an adverb e.g. in the sentence She cut the paper as carefully as she could,

the underlined part is an adverbial.

Affix verb, affixation noun

A meaningful group of letters added to the beginning or end of a word to make a new word, which can be a different

part of speech from the original word, e.g. interview, interviewer. Affixation is the process of adding a prefix or suffix

to a word. See prefix, suffix.

► Affricate

A sound produced by stopping the air flow then releasing it with friction e.g. / tâ / , / dΩ /.

Aids

Aids are the things that a teacher uses in a class, e.g. handouts, pictures, flashcards. When teachers plan lessons

they think about what aids they will need. See visual aid.

Aim

What the teacher wants to achieve in the lesson or in the course.

The main aim is the most important aim, e.g. the teacher’s main aim in a lesson could be to teach the

present perfect or develop listening skills.

A stage aim is the aim or purpose of a stage, step or short section of a lesson, e.g. to provide controlled

practice of the present perfect or to develop listening for gist.

A subsidiary aim is the secondary focus of the lesson, less important than the main aim. It could be the

language or skills learners must be able to use in order to achieve the main aim of the lesson or a skill or

language area which is practised while focusing on the main aim.

A personal aim is what the teacher would like to improve in his/her teaching, e.g. to reduce the time I spend

writing on the whiteboard

► Alveolar (ridge)

The ridge at the top of the mouth between the teeth and the hard palate. Several sounds e.g. / t / , / d / are

made in this area.

Analysis noun, Analyse verb

To examine or think about something in detail in order to understand it or get to know it better, e.g. analyse language:

what the form of the structure is and why it is being used in this way in this situation. Teachers also analyse learners’

style or performance.

► Anaphoric reference

Reference to something that occurs earlier in the text; often achieved through use of pronouns or lexical chains

e.g. in the text ‘Singapore is on the sea. It shares a border with Malaysia’, It refers back to Singapore. See

cataphoric reference and exophoric reference.

Anticipate (language) problems

When teachers are planning a lesson, they think about what their learners might find difficult about the language or

skills in the lesson so that they can help them learn more effectively at certain points in the lesson. They may also

think about how learners’ previous learning experience may affect their learning in a specific lesson.

Antonym

The opposite of another word, e.g. hot is an antonym of cold.

Apostrophe: see punctuation.

Appropriacy noun, appropriate adjective

Language which is suitable in a particular situation. See inappropriate and register.

Arouse, generate, stimulate interest

To get learners interested in a task or topic. See activate previous knowledge.

Art and craft activity noun

A classroom activity in which learners make something with their hands, such as an origami animal or a mini-book.

Learners often follow instructions from a teacher or a coursebook in order to make the item.

Article

An article can be definite (the), indefinite (a/an) or zero (-), e.g. I was at (-) home in the sitting room when I heard

a noise.

Ask for clarification

To ask for an explanation of what a speaker means, e.g. What do you mean?

Aspect

A way of looking at verb forms not purely in relation to time. Aspect relates to the type of event and the way speakers

view events, e.g. whether it is long or short, whether it is complete or not, whether it is repetitive or not, whether it is

connected to the time of speaking or not. There are two aspects in English, the continuous/progressive and the

perfect. The continuous aspect, for example, suggests that something is happening temporarily.

Assessment noun, assess verb

To discover, judge, test or form an opinion on learners’ ability, proficiency or progress either formally or informally.

Continuous assessment

A type of testing which is different from a final examination. Some or all of the work that learners do during a

course is considered by the teacher on a regular basis and contributes to the final grade given to learners. It

may also include regular monitoring of classroom performance and contribution.

Diagnostic assessment

A type of testing aimed at identifying – diagnosing – aspects of language and skills where learners have

weaknesses (or strengths) which subsequently informs the teachers’ future lesson planning. See teacher

roles.

Formal assessment

When a teacher judges learners’ work through a test and then gives a formal report or grade to learners, to

say how successful or unsuccessful they have been.

Formative assessment

When a teacher uses information on learners’ progress during a course to adapt their teaching and/or to give

learners feedback on their learning.

Informal assessment

When a teacher decides whether a learner is doing well or not, or whether a course is successful or not, by

observing learners rather than setting a test or writing an official report or giving a grade.

Peer assessment

When learners give feedback on each other’s language, work, learning strategies, performance.

Performance assessment

Typically this involves observation of classroom performance to assess how well learners express

themselves during specific tasks by checking performance against criteria. Teachers can evaluate if learners

achieved the purpose of the task.

Portfolio assessment

This is a type of formative assessment and also continuous assessment. It consists of a collection of

learners’ work done over a course or a year which shows evidence of development of their language skills.

Self-assessment

When learners decide for themselves how good they think their progress or language use is.

Summative assessment

A type of assessment done at the end of a course where the focus is on learners receiving a grade for their

work rather than receiving feedback on their progress.

Assessment chart/Assessment profile

A chart designed by the teacher and used for diagnostic purposes. The chart includes learners’ names and

assessment criteria. The teacher uses it to monitor and record comments on learners’ progress and achievement in

English. The comments are based on observation of learners working during class time, and/or on samples of written

work done for homework. See chart, pupil profile chart.

Assessment criteria

The qualities against which a learner’s performance is judged for assessment. For example, assessment criteria for

judging learners’ writing may be: accuracy of grammar, use of vocabulary, spelling and punctuation, organisation of

ideas.

Assessor: see teacher role.

► Assimilation

When a sound in connected speech becomes similar to a neighbouring sound e.g. in the sentence He grew up

in Britain, the /n/ in ‘in’ is likely to be assimilated to / m / resulting in / ˆmbrˆtWn /.

Assumptions

When teachers think about what they believe their learners will or will not know or how they will behave in a particular

lesson. For example, a teacher plans to teach the present simple using the context of jobs and daily routines. The

teacher may make the assumption that learners will know basic job vocabulary and so knows s/he will not need to

spend time in the lesson presenting these words.

‘At’ symbol: see punctuation.

Attention span

How long a learner is able to concentrate at any one time.

Attention spread

Attention spread relates to when and how teachers give equal attention to all of the learners in the class. This can

involve encouraging quieter learners to participate and ensuring that more enthusiastic learners do not dominate.

Audio script: see tapescript, transcript.

Auditory learner: see learning style.

Authentic material

Written or spoken texts which a first language speaker might read or listen to. They may be taken from newspapers,

radio etc. The language in the texts is not adapted or made easier for learners or the language learning process.

Authenticity: see authentic material.

Autonomy, autonomous: see learner autonomy.

Auxiliary verb: see verb.

Awareness: see language awareness and raise awareness.

► Back-channeling

When a listener signals understanding, surprise, agreement etc. to a speaker as the speaker is speaking.

Base form of a verb: see verb.

Base word: see root word.

► Bilabial

A sound produced with both lips e.g. / m / , / b /.

Bilingual dictionary: see dictionary.

Block

A small piece of wood with straight sides: Some teachers give learners coloured blocks for use in listen and make

activities.

Board game

A game played by two or more players on a board using dice. Players throw the dice and move around squares on

the board. By writing different instructions in the squares, teachers can use board games for controlled language

practice or oral fluency, e.g. when a learner lands on a square, they say a daily routine using the present simple.

Book

An activity book or workbook contains extra practice activities and is often used for homework. It usually

accompanies a coursebook.

A coursebook or textbook is used regularly by learners in the class. It generally contains grammar,

vocabulary and skills work and follows a syllabus. A coursebook unit is a chapter of a coursebook.

A teacher’s book accompanies the coursebook, and contains teaching ideas, audio scripts and answers to

coursebook activities.

Brainstorm noun + verb

To think of ideas (usually quickly) about a topic (often noting these down). This is often done as preparation before a

writing or speaking activity.

Brochure: see leaflet, realia.

Build rapport: see rapport.

‘Can-do’ statements

Sentences that describe language learners’ language use or an aspect of it on a scale of proficiency, e.g. This learner

CAN express simple opinions or requirements in a familiar context.

Capital letter

A letter of the form and size used at the beginning of a sentence or a name, e.g. They went to Spain last year.

See punctuation.

► Cataphoric reference

Reference to something that occurs later in the text; often achieved through use of pronouns or lexical chains

e.g. in the sentence That’s what it is – a nuisance, That refers forward to nuisance. See anaphoric, exophoric.

Categorisation noun, categorise verb, category noun

To put things into the group (category) to which they belong. For example, learners might categorise a list of different

foods into groups (categories) such as fruit and vegetables.

► Causative passive

A use of the passive to express the idea of making something happen e.g. She got her car washed; They had

their house painted; the causative is commonly expressed with the verb ‘get’ or ‘have’. See passive voice.

Chant noun + verb

To repeat a phrase, sentence, rhyme, verse, poem or song, usually with others, in a regular rhythm.

Chart noun

Information in the form of diagrams, lists or drawings often placed on the classroom wall for learners to refer to.

Common examples are lists of irregular verb forms or drawings illustrating the meanings of prepositions.

Checking understanding: see concept questions, concept checking.

Checklist noun

A list of things that a learner or teacher needs to focus on or consider. Examples could include assessment checklist,

resources checklist, lesson planning checklist.

Choral drill: see drill.

Chunk

Any pair or group of words commonly found together or near one another, e.g. phrasal verbs, idioms, collocations,

fixed expressions.

Clarify verb, clarification noun

1. To make clear what you mean.

2. Clarify language. When teachers focus on form, meaning and pronunciation to help learners understand the use

and rules of target language. See ask for clarification.

Class dynamics: see group dynamics.

Class, learner profile

A description of the learners and information related to their learning, including their age, ability, strengths and

weaknesses in language and skills.

Classroom management

The strategies used by a teacher to organise the classroom, the learning and the learners, such as seating

arrangements, different types of activities, teacher roles and interaction patterns.

Clause

A clause generally consists of a subject and a finite verb relating to the subject and any other elements, e.g. object.

A clause can be a full sentence or a part of a sentence.

Main clause

When the teacher arrived, the learners stopped talking.

Subordinate clause

When the teacher arrived, the learners stopped talking.

Relative clause

The learners who were sitting near the front stood up.

► See reduced relative clause.

Clip, DVD clip, video clip

Part of a video or DVD that can be used in class.

Closed pairs: see pairs.

Closed question

A question which leads to a yes/no answer or another very short response, e.g. Did you come to school by bus? Yes.

What did you have for breakfast? Toast. See open question.

Cloze test

A task-type in which learners read a text with missing words and try to work out what the missing words are. The

missing words are removed regularly from the text, e.g. every seventh word. A cloze test is used for testing reading

ability or general language use. It is different from a gap-fill activity, which can focus on practising or testing a specific

language point. See gap-fill.

Clue

A piece of information that helps someone to find the answer to a problem, e.g. a teacher could give the first letter of

a word she is trying to elicit as a clue to learners to help them find the word.

Cognitive (processes)

The mental processes involved in thinking, understanding and learning.

Coherence noun, coherent adjective

When ideas in a spoken or written text fit together clearly and smoothly, and so are logical and make sense to the

listener or reader.

Cohesion noun, cohesive adjective

The way spoken or written texts are joined together with logical grammar or lexis, e.g. conjunctions (Firstly, secondly),

lexical sets, referring words (it, them, this).

Cohesive device

A feature in a text which provides cohesion, e.g. use of topic-related vocabulary throughout a text, of sequencing

words (then, next, after that etc.), of referencing words (pronouns – he, him, etc.), of conjunctions (however, although

etc.).

Collaborate verb, collaborative adjective

To work together. Learners often collaborate in class when carrying out tasks, which typically involves planning,

creating, discussing, evaluating etc.

Collective noun: see noun.

Collocation noun, collocate verb,

Words which are regularly used together. The relation between the words may be grammatical, for example when

certain verbs/adjectives collocate with particular prepositions, e.g. depend on, good at or when a verb like make or do

collocates with a noun, e.g. do the shopping, make a plan. Collocations may also be lexical when two content words

are regularly used together, e.g. We went the wrong way NOT We went the incorrect way.

Colloquial

Language normally used in informal conversation but not in formal speech or writing, e.g. Give Gran a ring, OK?

Comma: see punctuation.

Common noun: see noun.

Communicative activity

A classroom activity in which learners need to talk or write to one another to complete the activity.

Communicative approaches

A way of teaching and practising language which is based on the principle that learning a language successfully

involves communication rather than just memorising a series of rules. Teachers try to focus on meaningful

communication, rather than focusing on accuracy and correcting mistakes. See Grammar-Translation method.

Comparative adjective: see adjective.

► Complement

Words or phrases that complete the meaning of another word or a sentence e.g. in the sentence ‘He

gave the man a ticket’, ‘the man a ticket’ is the complement. In ‘Jane was unavailable’, ‘unavailable’ is

the complement.

Complex

Complicated, not simple.

Complex sentence

A sentence containing a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

Components (of a lesson plan)

The main parts of a lesson plan, e.g. aims, procedure, timing, aids, interaction patterns, anticipated problems,

assumptions, timetable fit, personal aims.

Compound

Nouns, verbs, adjectives or prepositions that are made up of two or more words and have one unit of meaning,

e.g. assistant office manager, long-legged.

Compound noun: see noun.

Comprehension

Understanding a spoken or written text.

Concept

Idea or meaning.

Concept questions, concept checking

A concept question is a question asked by the teacher to make sure that a learner has understood the meaning of

new language, e.g. Teaching the new grammatical structure ‘used to’, using the example – He used to live in Paris.

Concept question – Does he live in Paris now? Answer – No.

Concept checking is the technique of asking concept questions or using other techniques to check that learners have

understood a new structure or item of lexis.

Concrete

Relating to real or specific ideas or concepts. Lexis can be concrete, e.g. words for real objects like clothes, food,

animals that can be seen or touched, or abstract. See abstract.

Conditional (forms)

A verb form that refers to a possible or imagined situation. Grammar books often mention four kinds of conditionals:

First (Type 1) conditional – refers to present or future possible or likely situations, e.g. I will come if I can.

Second (Type 2) conditional – refers to present or future situations which the speaker thinks are impossible

or unlikely, e.g. I would play for West Ham United if they asked me.

Third (Type 3) conditional – refers to past situations that cannot be changed, e.g. I would have seen her if I

had arrived earlier (but I didn’t so I couldn’t).

Mixed conditional – is used when the speaker wants to refer to different time frames in one sentence,

e.g. If I’d arrived on time, I wouldn’t have to wait now. If I’d arrived refers to the past and I wouldn’t have to

wait refers to the present.

Confidence noun, confident adjective

The feeling someone has when they are sure of their ability to do something well. Teachers often do activities that

help learners to feel more confident about their own ability.

Conjunction

A conjunction (or connector) is used to connect words, phrases, clauses or sentences, e.g. I like tea but I don’t like

coffee because it’s too strong for me.

► See co-ordinating conjunction, subordinating conjunction.

Connected speech

Spoken language in which the words join to form a connected stream of sounds. In connected speech some sounds

in words may be left out or may be pronounced in a weak way, e.g. Is he busy  / ˆziÄbˆziÄ /. See linking, weak

forms.

Connector: see conjunction.

► Connotation

The associations of a word. These associations may come from a situation, person or culture. e.g. ‘garlic’ – in

some countries garlic is thought of as health-giving and tasty; in others it is thought of as smelly and

overpowering. Because connotations are often subjective, they are not easy to learn. This example is terribly

specific and is also cross-cultural. Connotation also explains the difference between words like ‘thin’ and ‘slim’ -

or ‘house’ and ‘property’, which has a focus on language itself.

Consolidate, reinforce

To return to something in order to allow learners to understand and remember it more completely. For example,

learners can consolidate a grammar point by doing extra practice.

Consonant

A sound in which the air is partly blocked by the lips, tongue, teeth etc. Any letter of the English alphabet which

represents these sounds, e.g. d  /d/, c  /k/. See diphthong and vowel.

► Consonant cluster

Two or more consonants occurring together at the beginning or end of a syllable e.g. / eks / in

/ eksáésaˆz / (exercise); / str / in / strŘ / (strong).

Consult

To get advice or information from someone or something, e.g. teachers and learners might consult a dictionary or

grammar book.

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)

An approach in which a foreign language is used as a tool in the learning of a non-language subject in which both

language and the subject have a joint role.

Content-based instruction, content-based learning

An approach to teaching, traditionally associated with the US, in which non-native speakers, often from minority

language groups, are learning the target language to enable them to integrate into mainstream classes.

► Content word

A word which carries the main meaning; often contrasted with ‘function words’ which mainly perform a

grammatical function and carry little meaning e.g. in the sentence ‘ The postman was carrying a very big bag.’ the

content words are postman, carrying, very, big, bag. Content words are usually nouns, verbs, adjectives or

adverbs. See function word.

Context

1. The situation in which language is used or presented, e.g. a story about a holiday experience could be used as

the context to present and practise past tenses. Photographs can help to provide a context for a magazine

article.

2. The words or phrases before or after a word in discourse which help someone to understand that word.

See deduce meaning from context.

Contextualise

To put new language into a situation that shows what it means. See set the scene, set the context.

Continuous assessment: see assessment.

Contraction

A shorter form of a group of words, which usually occurs in auxiliary verbs, e.g. you have = you’ve; it is = it’s.

Contrast

To compare the differences between two things.

Contrastive stress: see stress.

Contribute

To give or add something, e.g. in the classroom, learners can contribute to a discussion by taking part and giving their

ideas.

Contributor: see teacher role.

Controlled practice: see practice.

Convey meaning

To express or communicate meaning. Teachers focus on conveying meaning when they present new language.

Co-operation noun, co-operate verb, co-operative adjective

Working together and helping each other. In some group work activities learners co-operate to find the answer or

solve a problem.

► Co-ordinating conjunction

Conjunctions which link two main clauses or two other grammatical units which have the same grammatical

status. ‘and’ and ‘but’ are examples of co-ordinating conjunctions e.g. He was keen but lazy; He played football

and tennis. See conjunction.

Core

The most important, central or most basic part of something. See root word, base word.

Correction

Echo correction - When learners make a mistake, the teacher repeats the mistake with rising intonation

encouraging learners to correct themselves, e.g.

Learner: He don’t like it.

Teacher: Don’t?

Learner: He doesn’t like it.

Finger correction - A way of drawing attention to where a learner has made a mistake. The teacher counts

out the words a learner has said on her fingers. The fingers represent words and the teacher can show

clearly in which word (finger) the mistake was made. A teacher may use her fingers to show that a mistake

has been made with word or sentence stress, word order, grammar, pronunciation of sounds etc.

Self-correction - When learners correct language mistakes they have made, perhaps with some help from

the teacher.

See ignore (errors).

Correction code

A series of symbols a teacher may use to mark learners’ writing so that they can correct mistakes by themselves,

e.g. P = punctuation mistake, T = tense mistake.

Counsellor: see teacher role.

Countable noun: see noun.

Coursebook: see book.

Coursebook unit: see book.

Criteria: see assessment criteria.

Cross reference

A note that tells the reader of a book to go to another place in the book to get more information, e.g. in a dictionary

entry for early it might say: early ─ arriving before the planned time. OPP LATE. This is a cross reference showing

the reader that there is information about late in another entry.

Crossword puzzle

A word game in which learners complete a grid. Learners write the answers to clues in the squares on the grid. It is

often used to review and consolidate vocabulary.

Cue card, prompt card

A card on which there is/are (a) word(s) or picture(s) to prompt or encourage learners to produce particular language,

often during a controlled practice activity or drill, e.g. a teacher presenting I like + ing / I don’t like + ing could have a

number of picture cue cards with different activities (swimming, reading etc). Learners have to respond to the cue

card using I like + ing or I don’t like + ing. See flashcard.

Curriculum

The subjects which make up an educational programme. They are taught differently in different contexts and in

different cultures. See syllabus.

► Declarative form, declarative question

The declarative form refers to the form of a sentence/utterance/clause that is used to make statements and give

information. A declarative question is a question with the grammar of a statement but said with intonation that

shows it is a question.

Decline, refuse an invitation

To say that you will not accept an invitation, e.g. I’m sorry but I can’t.

Deduce meaning from context

To guess the meaning of an unknown word by using the information in a situation and/or around the word to help, e.g.

I drove my van to the town centre and parked it in the central car park. Van must be some kind of vehicle because

you drive it and park it.

Definition noun, define verb

An explanation of the meaning of a word, e.g. in a dictionary.

► Delexicalised

That has (almost) lost its denotative meaning; usually used to describe verbs that combine with nouns to form

multi-word verbs e.g. to have a shower, to take a break, to make a difference.

Demonstrative adjective: see adjective.

Demonstrative pronoun: see pronoun.

Demotivate: see motivation.

► Denotation: see meaning.

► Dental

Involving the teeth. Dental sounds (/ ä / , / Ü /) are made with the teeth.

Dependent preposition: see preposition.

Detail, read for detail, listen for detail

To listen to or read a text in order to understand most of what it says or particular details. See gist, global

understanding.

Determiner

A determiner is used to make clear which noun is referred to, or to give information about quantity, and includes

words such as the, a, this, that, my, some, e.g. That car is mine.

Develop skills

To help learners to improve their listening, reading, writing and speaking ability. Teachers do this in class by

providing activities which focus on skills development. See skills.

Developmental error: see error.

Diagnostic test noun, diagnose verb: see assessment and test.

Diagnostician: see teacher role.

Dialogue

A conversation between two or more people.

Dice

Small blocks of plastic or wood with six sides and a different number of spots on each side. They are used

in board games.

Dictation noun, dictate verb

An activity which typically involves the learners in writing down what the teacher reads aloud. See picture dictation.

Dictionary

A bilingual dictionary uses translation from one language into another language for definitions and

examples.

A monolingual dictionary uses only the target language for headwords, definitions, examples etc.

A thesaurus is a type of dictionary in which words with similar meanings are grouped together.

Differentiation noun, differentiate verb

To make or see a difference between people and things. In teaching, this can have a special meaning relating to

dealing with mixed ability learners in one class, e.g. the teacher can provide different tasks, activities, texts or

materials for different learners in the class according to their ability.

Diphthong

A vowel combination which is pronounced by moving from one vowel to another, e.g. / aˆ / as in my is pronounced

by moving from / æ /to / ˆ /. See consonant and vowel.

Direct object: see object.

Direct speech, question

The actual words someone says, e.g. He said, ‘My name is Ron.’, ‘What do you mean, Sue?’, asked Peter.

See indirect question and reported speech, statement, question.

Discipline noun + verb

The system of rules used to maintain control of learners in the classroom.

Discourse

Spoken or written language in texts or groups of sentences.

► Discourse marker

A word or phrase that signals the function of the information that will follow/has just been given. e.g. in the

sentence ‘She was interested in many subjects, for example, food technology.’ ‘for example’ signals that an

example will follow. In the sentence ‘By the way, they’ve become good friends.’ ‘by the way’ signals that the

remark gives additional information not wholly coherent with previous information.

Discriminate, distinguish

To identify the difference between two or more things, e.g. sound discrimination is hearing the differences between

sounds, particularly minimal pairs, e.g. not/lot ; ship/sheep.

Distract

To prevent someone from concentrating on doing something. For example, talking to someone when they are trying

to read a book.

Dominate verb, dominant adjective

To have a very strong influence over what happens. If a particular learner is dominant in class, then other learners

get less chance to participate actively. If a teacher dominates, the lesson is teacher-centred.

Draft noun + verb

A draft is a piece of writing that is not yet finished, and may be changed. A writer drafts a piece of writing. That is,

they write it for the first time but not exactly as it will be when it is finished. See re-draft, process writing.

Drill

A technique teachers use for encouraging learners to practise language. It involves guided repetition or practice.

In a choral drill the teacher says a word or sentence and the learners repeat it together as a class.

In an individual drill the teacher says a word or sentence and one learner repeats it.

In a substitution drill the teacher provides a sentence and a different word or phrase which the learner must

use (or substitute) in exactly the same structure, e.g.

Teacher: I bought a book. Pen.

Learner: I bought a pen.

In a transformation drill the teacher says a word or a sentence and the learner answers by changing the

sentence into a new grammatical structure, e.g.

Teacher: I bought a pen. Didn’t

Learner: I didn’t buy a pen.

Teacher: I went to the cinema. Didn’t

Learner: I didn’t go to the cinema.

DVD clip: see clip.

► Dynamic verbs

Verbs referring to actions, events or bodily sensations and that express some kind of action. They can be used

in the progressive/continuous form e.g. His leg is hurting him; They’re eating their supper; It’s changing shape.

Dynamics: see group dynamics.

Echo correct: see correction.

Eclectic adjective

An approach to language teaching in which the teacher uses techniques and activities taken from different methods.

Edit verb

To shorten or change or correct the words or content of some parts of a written text to make it clearer or easier to

understand. See process writing.

Effective adjective

Having the intended or desired result.

Elicit verb

When a teacher thinks that some learners will know a piece of language or other information, s/he asks targeted

questions or gives clues to get, or prompt learners to give the target language or information rather than simply

providing it to the class her/himself.

► Elision

When a sound is left out in connected speech because it is followed by a similar sound e.g. in ‘he gave up

politics’ the /p/ in ‘up’ is likely to be elided /higeˆv√pÅlˆtˆks/

► Ellipsis

When a word, phrase or clause is left out in discourse because it is unnecessary for conveying meaning e.g. in

the sentence ‘ They made a big effort and ended up winning the prize,’ ‘they’ is left out before ‘ended up’

because it is clear what the subject of this verb is.

Emphasis noun, emphasise verb, emphatic adjective

When special force or attention is given to a word or information because it is important, e.g. I want to start the lesson

at SIX o’clock not seven o’clock.

Enable verb

To help someone be able to do something. To make something possible. For example, using a correction code

on learners’ writing enables learners to improve their own work.

Encouragement noun, encourage verb

When a teacher helps learners to succeed by giving them confidence, e.g. ‘Of course you can do it! You’re doing very

well ’. See confidence.

Energy levels

If learners are interested and working hard, then the energy levels are high; if learners are bored or tired, then the

energy levels are low.

English-medium school

A school in a non-English speaking country, in which all subjects are taught using English.

Enquire

To ask for information, e.g. What time does the train leave?

Entry

An item, for example a piece of information that is written or printed in a dictionary about a word, e.g. easy / iÄzˆ / adj,

adv. 1. not difficult, and not needing much physical and mental effort: an easy job.

Error

A mistake that a learner makes when trying to say something above their level of language or language processing.

A developmental error is an error made by a second language learner which could also be made by a

young person learning their mother tongue as part of their normal development, e.g. I goed there last week (I

went there last week).

A fossilised error is an error that has become a permanent feature of a learner’s language, the error has

become a habit. Fossilised errors cannot easily be corrected.

When a learner makes a slip they make a language mistake but they are able to correct themselves.

Establish, verb

To discover or get proof of something. Assessing learners can establish the progress they have made.

Evaluation noun, evaluate verb

To assess or judge the quality, importance or effectiveness of something. Teachers may evaluate learners’ progress

or strengths and weaknesses.

Exchange verb + noun

1. To give something to another person and receive something in return.

2. An exchange can also be used to refer to the part of spoken interaction in which one person speaks and

another responds to what they said.

Exclamation mark: see punctuation.

► Exophoric reference

Reference to something that is outside the text; often achieved through pronouns or demonstrative adjectives,

e.g. in the sentence ‘Pass me that piece of paper, will you?’ ‘that’ is exophoric, referring to something in the

speaker’s surroundings. See anaphoric, cataphoric.

Expectation

A belief about the way something will happen. Learners often have expectations about what and how they should

learn.

Exploit (material)

To use material for a particular purpose.

Exponent

An example of a grammar point, function or lexical set.

Exposure noun, expose verb

When learners listen to or read language without being consciously aware of it.

Express

To show or make known a feeling or an opinion in words, e.g.

Express ability, e.g. I can swim.

Express intention, e.g. I’m planning to visit him next year.

Express necessity, e.g. He needs to get a new passport.

Express obligation, e.g. You must wear a seatbelt.

Express permission, e.g. You can have a look at my book.

Express preference, e.g. I’d rather have coffee than tea.

Express probability, e.g. He should be in later.

Express prohibition, e.g. You mustn’t use your mobile phone while driving.

Extension task, extend verb, extended adjective

An activity which gives learners further or extended practice of the target language or the topic of the lesson or

additional skills work.

Extensive listening/reading

Listening to or reading long pieces of text, such as stories or newspapers. See intensive listening/reading.

Extract

Part of a text which is removed from an original, longer text.

Facial expression

A person can show how they feel through their face, e.g. smiling, showing surprise.

Facilitator noun, facilitate verb

To make something possible. Teachers facilitate learning by planning and delivering lessons and maintaining

discipline in the classroom. See teacher role.

Factor

A fact or situation which influences the result of something, e.g. the factors which influence whether someone learns a

language successfully or not.

Fairy story

A traditional story written for children which usually involves imaginary creatures and magic.

False friend

A word in the target language which looks or sounds as if it has the same meaning as a similar word in the learners’

first language but does not, e.g. In French, ‘librairie’ is a place where people can buy books. In English, a library is

where you may go to borrow books rather than somewhere where you go to buy books (a bookshop).

Feature

A feature of something is an interesting or important part or characteristic of it. Take, for example, the sentence I can

play tennis. In connected speech, can is pronounced / kWn / – the weak form / W / is a feature of this sentence.

Feedback noun + verb, give, provide feedback.

1. To tell someone how well they are doing. Teachers might give learners feedback at a certain point in the course,

or after an exercise that learners have just completed. In addition, learners can give feedback to teachers and

teacher trainers give feedback to trainee teachers.

2. To communicate to a speaker that you understand (or not) what they are saying.

Peer feedback

Feedback given to a learner by another learner in the class.

► Figurative: see meaning.

Filler

1. A short activity between the main stages of a lesson used for reasons such as time management or to

provide a change of pace etc.

2. A word or sound used between words or sentences in spoken English when someone is thinking of what to

say, e.g. When I went to London … um … I think it was about … er … 4 years ago. Er and um are

conversational fillers.

Finger correction: see correction.

► Finite verb

A part of the verb which shows time or person e.g. in the sentence ‘He goes away, laughing, ‘goes’ shows time

and person whereas ‘laughing’ shows neither. See non-finite verb.

First conditional: see conditional (forms).

First language: see mother tongue, L1/L2.

First person: see person.

Flashcard

A card with words, sentences or pictures on it. A teacher can use these to explain a situation, tell a story, teach

vocabulary etc. See cue card, prompt card.

Flexible adjective

Something or someone that can change easily to suit new situations. Teachers need to be flexible and to be

prepared to change or adapt if the lesson is not going to plan.

Flipchart

A pad of large sheets of paper fixed to a stand, which teachers use for presenting information to the class.

Fluency

Oral fluency – being able to speak using connected speech at a natural speed with little hesitation, repetition

or self-correction. In spoken fluency activities, learners typically give attention to the communication of

meaning, rather than trying to be correct.

Written fluency – being able to write in a clear and confident way. In a written fluency activity, learners give

attention to the content and ideas of the text rather than trying to be correct.

See accuracy.

Focus on

To pay attention to something, to notice something, to highlight something.

Focus on form

Paying attention to the words/parts of words that make a language structure or to spelling or pronunciation.

Form

The form of a grammatical structure is the way it is written or pronounced and the parts which combine to make it, e.g.

the present perfect (grammatical structure) is made up of have + past participle (the form).

Formal assessment: see assessment.

Formal language

Language used in formal conversations or writing, e.g. Yours faithfully. See informal language and register.

Formality (level of): see register.

Formative assessment: see assessment.

Fossilisation

The process in which incorrect language becomes a habit and cannot easily be corrected. See error.

Fossilised error: see error.

Freer practice, free practice: see practice.

► Fricative

A sound produced by creating friction in the air flow e.g. / f / , / â / , / Ω / , / h / , / Ü /

► Fronting

Putting part of a sentence or utterance in a non standard position at the beginning of a

sentence/utterance, usually to emphasise the topic e.g. ‘That music, I can’t stand it’.

Full stop: see punctuation.

Function

The reason or purpose for communication, e.g. making a suggestion; giving advice.

► Function word

A word with little semantic meaning that is included in a sentence or utterance mainly to help

form its grammatical structure and convey its grammatical meaning e.g. in the sentence ‘Bill was

spending the evening at home’, ‘was’, ‘the’ and ‘at’ are function words. See content word.

Functional approach

A way of teaching which uses a syllabus based on functions.

Functional exponent

A phrase which is an example of a function and shows the purpose of what the speaker is communicating,

e.g. Let’s ... This phrase is one way to make a suggestion. It is an example (or exponent) of the function of

suggesting. See function.

Future forms: see tense.

Gap-fill

An activity in which learners fill in spaces or gaps in sentences or texts. This is often used for restricted practice or for

focusing on a specific language point. This is different from a cloze test which can focus on reading ability or general

language use. See cloze test.

Generate interest: see arouse interest.

Gerund, -ing form

A form of a verb functioning as a noun, which ends in -ing, e.g. I hate shopping.

Gesture noun + verb

A movement with part of the body, e.g. hand, head, which is used to convey meaning.

Get learners’ attention

To make learners listen to the teacher after they have been doing group or pairwork or at the start of the lesson.

Gist, global understanding, listening/reading for gist, listening/reading for global understanding

To read or listen to a text and understand the general meaning of it, without paying attention to specific details. See

detail, read for detail, listen for detail.

Give feedback: see feedback.

► Glottal (stop)

A plosive sound produced at the back of the mouth and represented by the phonemic symbol / ÷ /. In English it

sometimes replaces other sounds, especially / t /, e.g. / wÅ÷ / (what), / lˆ÷l / (little).

Glue noun + verb

Glue is used to fix or join things together. For example, children cut out pictures from a magazine and then glue them

onto a poster they are making in class.

Goal, target

An aim that a learner or teacher may have.

► Gradable/ungradable

A gradable adjective or adverb can be measured in degrees. Non-gradable adjectives or adverbs cannot be.

Examples of gradable adjectives are ‘exciting, solid, interesting’. They can be qualified by words such as more,

rather, quite which show degree. Examples of ungradable adjectives are ‘perfect, alive, salaried’.

Grade (language)

To use language that is at the correct level for the learners and is not too easy or difficult. See graded reader.

Graded reader

A book where the language has been made easier for learners. These are often books with stories or novels where

the language has been simplified.

Grammar-Translation method

A way of teaching in which learners study grammar and translate words and texts into their own language or the

target language. They do not practise communication and there is little focus on speaking. A teacher presents a

grammar rule and vocabulary lists and then learners translate a written text from their own language into the second

language or vice versa. See communicative approaches.

Grammatical structure

A grammatical structure is a grammatical language pattern, e.g. present perfect simple. See form.

Graph

A drawing that uses a line or lines to show how two or more set of numbers are related to each other, e.g.

Greet

To welcome someone, often with words, e.g. Hello, how are you?

Grid

A pattern of straight lines that cross each other to make squares, e.g.

Group, class dynamics

The relationship between learners in the group or class.

Guidance noun, guide verb

Help given by a teacher with learning, or with doing a task.

Guided discovery

A way of teaching in which a teacher provides examples of the target language and then guides the learners to work

out the language rules for themselves.

Guided writing

A piece of writing that learners produce after the teacher has helped them to prepare for it by, for example giving the

learners a plan to follow, or ideas for the type of language to use. See process writing and product writing.

Handout, worksheet

A piece of paper with exercises, activities or tasks on it that a teacher gives to learners for a range of reasons during a

class or for reference or homework.

Headword

A word whose meaning is explained in a dictionary. It usually appears in bold at the top of a dictionary entry,

e.g. run

to move using your legs, going faster than you can walk; run is the headword.

Hesitation noun, hesitate verb

A pause before or while doing or saying something. Learners often hesitate if they are trying to find the correct words

to say, because they need more time to think.

Higher-order thinking skills (HOTS)

These are skills such as analysis and evaluation. They are often used in the classroom to develop reasoning skills,

encourage enquiry and discussion and to develop creative thinking. For example, How can we change the design of

the building to make it more fuel efficient? They involve open-ended talk. See Lower-order thinking skills (LOTS).

Highlight

1. To mark words on paper, on the board or on a computer screen using a colour or underlining so that they are

easier to notice.

2. To draw attention to or focus on something so that learners realise it is important, e.g. to highlight a mistake by

underlining it.

Homonym

A word with the same spelling and pronunciation as another word, but which has a different meaning,

e.g. bit (past tense of ‘bite’) and a bit (a little).

Homophone

A word which sounds the same as another word, but has a different meaning or spelling, e.g. I knew he had won;

I bought a new book.

► Hyponym

A hyponym describes a relationship between words. Hyponyms are words that are examples of a particular

type or category, e.g. ‘potatoes, carrots, peas’ are hyponyms of ‘vegetables’; ‘chair, table, sideboard’ are

hyponyms of ‘furniture’.

Hypothesise

To suggest an explanation for something unknown. For example, What would you do if you were leader of your

country?

► Hypothetical

Which can be imagined or suggested; improbable; impossible e.g. as expressed in the following

‘If they’d been here; If only I had more time.’

Ice-breaker

An introductory activity that a teacher uses at the start of a new course so that learners can get to know each other.

ICT / IT (Information [Communication] Technology)

The use of computers to enable learners to improve information-processing skills, to explore ideas, to solve problems,

to access and surf the internet, to develop collaborative learning with students who are in other places, to participate

in video conferencing. The subject is referred to as ICT, the skills used are IT skills and the lab is known as the IT lab.

Identify verb, identification noun

To recognise somebody or something as being a particular person or thing.

Idiom noun, idiomatic adjective

A group of words that are used together, in which the meaning of the whole word group is different from the meaning

of each individual word, e.g. She felt under the weather means that she felt ill.

Ignore (errors)

To choose not to pay attention to something such as an error made by a learner. A teacher may do this if he/she

wants to help the learner with fluency, not accuracy. See correction.

Illustrate meaning

To show what something means.

Imperative

The form of a verb that gives an order or instruction, e.g. Turn to page 10.

Inappropriate

Language which is not suitable in a particular situation. See appropriacy and register.

Independence: see learner autonomy.

Independent study

Studying without a teacher present or without the teacher monitoring and directing the learning very closely,

e.g. learners could carry out research on a topic using reference resources. This could be done at home or with

minimum involvement of the teacher in class.

Indicate verb

To show, point out, make known, e.g. a teacher can indicate that a learner has made a mistake by repeating the

mistake with rising intonation.

Indirect object: see object.

Indirect question

An indirect question is used when someone wants to ask something in a more polite way, e.g. ‘I was wondering if you

could help me.’ (indirect question) instead of ‘Could you help me?’ (direct question). See direct speech, question

and reported speech, statement, question.

Individual drill: see drill.

Infer attitude, feeling, mood

To decide how a writer or speaker feels about something from the way that they speak or write, rather than from what

they openly say.

Infinitive: see verb.

Infinitive of purpose

This is used to express why something is done, e.g. I joined the course to learn English.

Informal assessment: see assessment.

Informal language

Language used in informal conversations or writing, e.g. Hi John. See formal language and register.

Informality (level of): see register.

Information-gap activity

A classroom activity in which learners work in pairs or groups. Learners are given a task, but they are given different

information and, to complete the task, they have to find out the missing information from each other.

Information transfer

An activity in which learners move information from one source to another, e.g. reading an explanation then

completing a diagram with key words from the explanation.

-ing /-ed adjective: see adjective.

-ing form: see gerund.

► Initialism

A set of letters representing the first letters of two or more words where the letters are pronounced as letters,

such as BBC, DVD . See: acronym.

Input noun + verb

Information which is given to learners by the teacher, e.g. through a text or via electronic means.

Instruct verb

To order or tell someone to do something, e.g. Please turn to page 12 and do exercise 1.

Integrated skills

An integrated skills lesson combines work on more than one language skill. For example reading and then writing or

listening and speaking.

Intensifier

A word used to make the meaning of another word stronger, e.g. He’s much taller than his brother. I’m very tired.

Intensive course

A course which takes place over a short period of time, but which consists of a large number of hours.

Intensive listening/reading

One meaning of intensive listening/reading is reading or listening to focus on how language is used in a text. This is

how intensive listening/reading is used in TKT. See extensive listening/reading.

Interaction noun, interact verb, interactive strategies

Interaction is ‘two-way communication’ between listener and speaker, or reader and text. Interactive strategies are

the means used, especially in speaking, to keep people involved and interested in what is said or to keep

communication going, e.g. eye contact, use of gestures, functions such as repeating, asking for clarification.

Interaction patterns

The different ways learners and the teacher work together in class, e.g. learner to learner, in pairs or groups or

teacher to learner, in open class, in plenary. When teachers plan lessons, they think about interaction patterns and

write them on their plan.

Interactive whiteboard (IWB)

A special surface where a computer screen is displayed using a projector. Teachers and learners can use it by

touching it or by using an interactive pen which acts like a mouse.

Interference

Interference happens when the learner’s mother tongue affects performance in the target language, especially in

pronunciation, lexis or grammar. For example, a learner may make a grammatical mistake because they apply the

same grammatical pattern as they use in their mother tongue to what they want to say in the target language, but the

L1 grammatical pattern is not appropriate in L2.

Interlanguage

Learners’ own version of the second language which they speak as they learn. Interlanguage is constantly changing

and developing as learners learn more of the second language.

Interrogative

A question form.

Intonation

The way the level of a speaker’s voice changes to show meaning such as how they feel about something, e.g. if they

are angry or pleased, or to make speech sound polite in English. Intonation can be rising or falling or both.

Intransitive

Is a term used to describe a verb which does not take a direct object, e.g. She never cried. See transitive.

Introductory activity

An activity which takes place at the beginning of a lesson. Introductory activities often include warmers and lead-ins.

► Intrusion/intrusive

Used to describe a feature of connected speech in which an extra sound (/ w / , / j / or / r / in English) is added

at a word boundary to make for smoother linking between separate words, e.g. the / w / in / juwåç/ (you are).

Involvement

Taking part in an activity actively, being involved in it.

Irregular verb: see verb.

IT: see ICT.

Item

1. A piece of language, e.g. a vocabulary or a grammar item.

2. The questions (items) in a test to which a learner has to respond.

Jigsaw listening/reading

A text is divided into two or more different parts. Learners listen to or read their part only, then share their information

with other learners so that in the end everyone knows all the information. In this way, the text is made into an

information-gap activity.

Jumbled letters, paragraphs, pictures, sentences, words

A word in which the letters are not in the correct order, a sentence in which the words are not in the correct order,

a text in which the paragraphs or sentences are not in the correct order, or a series of pictures that are not in the

correct order. The learners put the letters, words, text or pictures into the correct order.

Key word, language

A word or aspect of language in a piece of discourse or text, which is important for understanding the text.

Kinaesthetic learner: see learning style.

L1/L2

L1 is the learner’s mother tongue or first language; L2 is the learner’s second language. See mother tongue, target

language.

Label noun + verb

To match the name of an object to the object.

► Labio-dental

A sound produced on the lips and teeth e.g. / f / , / v /.

Language awareness

A learner’s understanding of the rules of how language works and his/her ability to notice language.

Language frames

Language frames are forms of support for writing and speaking at word, sentence and text levels or all three. They

are types of scaffolding which help learners to start, connect and develop ideas. For example:

Describing a process from a visual

The diagram shows …

First of all …

Then …

Next …

After that …

Finally …

Language laboratory

A room in a school where learners can practise language by listening to tapes or CDs and by recording themselves

speaking.

Language resource: see teacher role.

Layout

The way in which a text is organised and presented on a page. Certain texts have special layouts, e.g. letters and

newspaper articles.

Lead-in noun, lead in verb

The activity or activities used to prepare learners to work on a text, topic or main task. A lead-in often includes

an introduction to the topic of the text or main task and possibly study of some new key language required for the text

or main task.

Leaflet, brochure

A piece of printed paper that gives information or advertises something, e.g. a leaflet with information about local

places of interest. This is one example of realia.

Learn by heart

To learn something so that you can remember it perfectly. See memorise.

Learner autonomy noun, autonomous adjective, learner independence

When a learner can set his/her own aims and organise his/her own study, they are autonomous and independent.

Many activities in coursebooks help learners to be more independent by developing learning strategies and focusing

on learner training.

Learner-centred

When the learners are at the centre of the activities and have the chance to work together, make choices and think for

themselves in a lesson. See teacher-centred.

Learner characteristics

The typical things about a learner or learners that influence their learning, e.g. age, L1, past learning experience,

learning style.

Learner independence: see learner autonomy.

Learner profile: see class, learner profile.

Learner training

The use of activities to help learners understand how they learn and help them to become autonomous, independent

learners.

Learning centre: see self-access centre.

Learning contract

An agreement between the teacher and the learners about their roles and responsibilities (i.e. what the teacher will do

and what the learners will do to help the learners to learn).

Learning resources

The materials or tools which help learners learn, e.g. books, computers, CDs etc. See aids and reference materials.

Learning strategies

The techniques which learners consciously use to help them when learning or using language, e.g. deducing the

meaning of words from context; predicting content before reading.

Learning style

The way in which an individual learner naturally prefers to learn something. There are many learning styles. Three of

them are below.

Auditory learner

A learner who remembers things more easily when they hear them spoken. This type of learner may like the

teacher to say a new word aloud and not just write it on the board.

Kinaesthetic learner

A learner who learns more easily by doing things physically. This type of learner may like to move around or

move objects while learning.

Visual learner

A learner who finds it easier to learn when they can see things written down or in a picture. This type of

learner may like the teacher to write a new word on the board and not just say it aloud.

Less controlled practice: see practice.

► Literal: see meaning.

Lexical approach

A way of teaching language that focuses on lexical items or chunks such as words, multi-word units, collocations and

fixed expressions rather than grammatical structures.

► Lexical chain

A series of words related through a topic and that in discourse serve to provide cohesion, e.g.

shop  shop assistant  counter  sale

Lexical set

A group of words or phrases that are about the same content topic or subject, e.g. weather – storm, to rain, wind,

cloudy.

Lexis (Also vocabulary)

Individual words or sets of words, e.g. homework, study, whiteboard, get dressed, be on time.

Linguistic

Connected with language or the study of language.

Linking

1. The way different sounds can link into each other in connected speech, e.g. it ’s a good day – / ˆtsW˝¨deˆ /.

See connected speech.

2. Joining parts of sentences (phrases and clauses), sentences and paragraphs to make text more cohesive e.g.

I went shopping then I went to the gym. I bought a dress and a hat. See cohesive device.

Listen and do/make/draw

A classroom activity where learners listen to the teacher or to another learners and while they are listening they

perform an action (listen and do), make something (listen and make) or draw something (listen and draw). These

activities are usually used as comprehension tasks. See action rhyme and picture dictation.

Listen for detail: see detail.

Listen for gist, global understanding: see gist.

Listen for mood: see mood.

Literacy

The ability to read and write.

► Literal: see meaning, denotation.

Logical

Based on reason. A lesson is logical if the stages follow an order which makes sense and if one stage leads clearly

and obviously to another.

Lower-order thinking skills (LOTS)

These are skills such as remembering information and defining objects. They are often used in the classroom to

check understanding and to review learning. They usually involve closed answers. See higher-order thinking skills

HOTS.

Lyrics

The words of a song.

Main aim: see aim.

Main clause: see clause.

Main stress: see stress.

Management: see classroom management.

Manager: see teacher role.

Mask

Something that you wear to cover your face. Children may wear different masks when they are acting as different

characters in a class activity. See prop.

Matching task

A task-type in which learners are asked to pair related things together, e.g. match two halves of a sentence, or a word

with a picture.

Maturity noun, mature adjective

Fully grown or developed. If a learner is mature in attitude, they behave in an adult way. A learner’s maturity

(physical, emotional and mental) influences a teacher’s approaches and/or decisions.

► Meaning

What a word expresses; there are several kinds of meaning.

Denotation

The dictionary definition of a word e.g. a chair is a piece of furniture with legs and we use it to sit on.

Figurative

An imaginative meaning of a word e.g. he put all his heart into his new job.

Literal

The original or basic meaning of a word.

Pragmatic

The meaning given to an utterance by the situation in which it occurs e.g. ‘would you mind keeping quiet’ said

by a teacher to a student is likely to have the pragmatic meaning of a command rather than an enquiry about

willingness.

Semantic

The meanings of words or how they relate to one another e.g. as synonyms, antonyms.

Meaningful

1. something which shows the meaning of language.

2. an activity can be meaningful if it is useful for learners in the real world outside the classroom or is relevant to

them.

Memorise verb, memorable adjective

To learn something so that you can remember it later; something which is easy to remember. See learn by heart.

Method; methodology

A way of approaching or doing a particular activity, e.g. use modern/new/traditional methods in language teaching; a

set of methods, e.g. changes in the methodology of language teaching

Mime noun + verb

Body movements used to convey meaning without using words.

Mind map: see word map.

Mingle noun + verb

A mingle is an activity which involves learners having to walk round the classroom talking to other learners to

complete a task.

Minimal pair

Two words which differ from each other by only one meaningful sound (or phoneme),e.g. hit / hˆt / ; heat / hˆÄt /.

Mixed ability, mixed level

The different levels of language or ability of learners studying in the same class.

Mixed conditional: see conditional (forms).

Modal verb: see verb.

Model noun + verb

A clear example of the target language for learners to repeat or write down or save as a record. If a teacher is

focusing on the target language of a lesson, s/he usually chooses a model sentence, which s/he writes on the board.

The teacher often models the language as well, by saying it clearly before drilling the learners.

► Modifier

A word which adds further meaning to a noun phrase e.g. in the sentence ‘I’d like to try on that leather coat in

the window’, ‘leather’ and ‘in the window’ are modifiers.

Monitor verb +noun, self-monitor

1. To watch over learners in order to make sure that they are doing what they have been asked to do, and help them

if they are having problems.

2. To listen to/read the language you use to see if it is accurate and effective.

3. See teacher role.

Monolingual dictionary: see dictionary.

Mood, listen for mood, read for mood

To read or listen to a text in order to identify the feelings of the writer or speaker. See infer attitude, feeling, mood.

► Morpheme

The smallest unit that has meaning in a language. A morpheme is a base word or an affix, e.g. carefully

contains three morphemes: care, -ful, -ly; walked contains two: walk, -ed.

Mother tongue

The very first language that you learn as a baby, which is usually the language spoken to you by your parents.

Also called L1 or first language. See L1/L2.

Motivation noun, motivate verb

Motivation is the thoughts and feelings which make us want to do something and help us continue doing it.

Demotivate, verb demotivated adjective

To make someone lose motivation.

Unmotivated adjective

Without motivation; having no motivation.

Multiple-choice questions

A task-type in which learners are given a question and three or four possible answers or options. They choose the

correct answer from the options they are given.

Multiword verb: see verb.

Narrative noun + adjective, narrate verb

1. A narrative is another word for a story.

2. To tell a story or talk about something that has happened. Teachers often narrate stories to young learners.

Narrator: see teacher role.

► Nasal

A sound produced by air passing through the nose e.g. / ˜ / , / m /.

Native speaker

Someone who has spoken a particular language since they were a baby, rather than having learnt it as a child or

adult. See L1/L2 and mother tongue.

Natural order

Some people believe there is an order in which learners naturally learn some items in their first or other languages.

Some language items are learned before others and it can be difficult for teachers to influence this order.

Needs

The language, language skills or learning strategies a learner still has to learn in order to reach their goals, or the

conditions they need to help them learn.

Negotiate

To discuss with someone to reach an agreement, e.g. If you help me now, I’ll help you next week.

Neutral

A style of speaking or writing that is neither formal nor informal, but in between. It is appropriate for most situations.

See formal language, informal language.

Nominate

To choose and name one learner to speak or do a particular task.

► Non-finite verb

A part of the verb which does not show time or person, e.g. the infinitive (He needed to have a holiday), the

present participle (Not understanding the question, he gave the wrong answer). See finite verb.

Note-taking noun, take notes verb

To take notes means to listen and write down ideas from the text in short form.

Notice language

When a learner becomes aware of the language the speaker or writer uses to express a particular concept or

meaning.

Noun

A person, place or thing, e.g. elephant, girl, grass, school.

A collective noun is a noun that refers to a group of people or things, e.g. the police, the government.

A common noun is a noun that is not the name of a particular person, place or thing, e.g. table, book.

A compound noun is a combination of two or more words, which are used as a single word, e.g. a flower

shop, a headache.

A countable noun has a singular and plural form, e.g. book books.

A plural noun is more than one person, place or thing and can be regular or irregular, e.g. boys, women.

A proper noun is the name of a person or place, e.g. Robert, London.

An uncountable noun does not have a plural form, e.g. information.

► Noun phrase

A single word or a group of words that act as the subject, object or complement in a sentence or utterance. It

usually contains a noun and words occurring before or after the noun that modify it, e.g. in the sentence ‘The

tall shy-looking girl on the right is my sister.’ the underlined words make up noun phrases.

Object

This is a noun or phrase that describes the thing or person that is affected by the action of a verb, e.g. I saw Mary in

the classroom. See subject.

A direct object is the main object of a transitive verb.

An indirect object is an object affected by a verb but not directly acted on, e.g. He gave the book to me. In

this sentence, the book is the direct object and me is an indirect object.

Object pronoun: see pronoun.

Objective

Lesson objectives are specific learning targets that help achieve a lesson’s aims, e.g. Learners will be able to

understand the gist of the text.

Objective test: see test.

Observed lesson

A lesson that is watched by a teacher trainer or a colleague.

Observer: see teacher role.

Off task

When learners are distracted or not completing an activity in the way the teacher wants them to do it then they are off

task. See on task.

On task

When learners are doing an activity in the way the teacher intended that it should be done then learners are on task.

See off task.

One-to-one

A teaching situation which involves only one teacher and one learner.

Open class, whole class

When the teacher leads the class and each learner is focusing on the teacher, rather than working alone or in groups.

When learners respond, they do so in front of everyone in the class.

Open pairs: see pairs.

Open question

A question which can lead to a long response, e.g. How did you spend last weekend? Why do you think many people

prefer to drive rather than use public transport?

Open comprehension questions are a task-type in which learners read or listen to a text and answer questions

(using their own words).

Open-ended (task, questions)

A task or question that does not have a right or wrong answer, but which allows learners to offer their own opinions

and ideas or to respond creatively, e.g. Why do you think the writer likes living in Paris?

Oral fluency: see fluency.

Oral test

A test of speaking ability.

Origami

The art of making objects for decoration by folding sheets of paper into shapes.

Outcome

Result. This is what the teacher hopes will be the result in terms of learning at the end of the lesson.

Over-application of the rule, over generalisation

When a learner uses a grammatical rule s/he has learned, but uses it in situations when it is not needed or

appropriate, e.g. a learner says, There were three girls (correct plural form used for most nouns) and two mans.

(incorrect plural form – not appropriate for man).

Overhead projector (OHP)

A piece of equipment that makes images appear on a wall or screen. It can be used in a classroom instead of a

whiteboard or blackboard.

Overhead transparency (OHT)

The plastic sheet a teacher can write on and use with an overhead projector (OHP).

Pace

The speed of the lesson. A teacher can vary the pace in a lesson by planning different activities in order to keep the

learners’ attention.

Pairs

Closed pairs – When learners in the class do pairwork with the person sitting next to them but not in front of

the class.

Open pairs – In open pairs, one pair does a pairwork activity in front of the class. This technique is useful for

showing how to do an activity and/or for focusing on accuracy.

► Palate – palatal

The palate is the roof of the mouth. Sounds can be produced on the hard palate or the soft palate (velum).

Paragraph noun + verb

A paragraph is a section in a longer piece of writing such as an essay. It starts on a new line and usually contains a

single new idea. When a writer is paragraphing, s/he is creating paragraphs. See topic sentence.

► Parallelism

The repetition of grammatical structures within a text, e.g. ‘Enjoy the ride; Have a great time’ (imperative +

object).

Paraphrase noun + verb

To say or write something that has been read or heard using different words. Paraphrase can also be used to

describe what a learner does if s/he is not sure of the exact language they need to use, i.e. explain their meaning

using different language.

Part of speech

A way of categorising words according to their grammatical function and meaning, e.g. noun, verb, adjective, pronoun,

adverb, preposition, conjunction.

Participation noun, participate verb

To take part in something, e.g. a lesson or classroom activity.

Participle (past and present)

–ed and –ing forms of the verb, they are often used to make tenses or adjectives, e.g. I’m going home. (present

participle); I haven’t seen him today. (past participle)

Particle

A small grammatical word, often an adverb or preposition which does not change its form when used in a sentence,

e.g. after is a particle in the phrasal verb look after.

Passive role

When learners want to be taught and to acquire language without making their own decisions about their needs and

learning, they are taking a passive role. See active role.

Passive voice

In a passive sentence, something is done to or happens to the subject of the sentence, e.g. They were taken to the

airport by taxi. See active voice.

► See Causative passive.

Past perfect simple, continuous, progressive: see tense.

Past simple, continuous, progressive: see tense.

Peer assessment: see assessment.

Peer feedback: see feedback.

Performance assessment: see assessment.

Person

First person – the person speaking, e.g. I, we.

Second person – the person spoken to, e.g. you.

Third person – the person spoken about, e.g. he, she, they.

Personal aim: see aim.

Personal pronoun: see pronoun.

Personalisation noun, personalise verb

When a teacher helps a learner to connect new words, topics, texts or grammar to their own life.

Phoneme

The smallest sound unit which can make a difference to meaning e.g. /p/ in pan, /b/ in ban. Phonemes have their own

symbols (phonemic symbols), each of which represents one sound. Words can be presented in phonemic script

(usually International Phonetic Alphabet or IPA), e.g. / dÅktW /– doctor. Phonemic transcription is used in

dictionaries to show pronunciation. See phonemic chart.

Phonemic chart

A poster or large diagram of the phonemic symbols arranged in a particular order. See phoneme.

Phonology noun, phonological adjective

The study of sounds in a language or languages.

Phrasal verb: see verb.

Phrase

A group of words which are often a part of a sentence rather than the whole sentence, e.g. the green car, on Friday

morning are phrases. Also a group of words that together have a particular meaning.

Pick up (language)

To learn language without studying it, just by hearing and/or reading and then using it. See acquisition.

Picture dictation

A classroom activity where the teacher describes a scene or an object and learners draw what they hear. See listen

and do/draw/make.

Picture stories

Stories that are shown in pictures instead of words.

Pie chart

A pie chart is a circle divided into sections in order to show how something is divided into different amounts. They are

used to help learners remember new information by making thinking visual, e.g.

See Venn diagram.

Placement test: see test.

Planner: see teacher role.

Plenary

Part of a lesson when teachers discuss ideas with the whole class. A plenary is often held at the end of a lesson

when teachers assess learning against the learning outcomes by providing opportunities to review what has been

learnt.

► Plosive

A sound produced by blocking air then releasing it suddenly. This creates a popping sound e.g. / p / , / t / , / ˝ /.

Plural noun: see noun.

Portfolio

A collection of work that a learner uses to show what he/she has done during a particular course. A purposeful

document, regularly added to that may be part of continuous assessment. See portfolio assessment.

Possessive adjective: see adjective.

Possessive pronoun: see pronoun.

Possessive ‘s’ and whose

Ways of showing or asking who something belongs to, e.g. ‘Whose book is it?’ ‘It’s Sue’s’.

PowerPoint

A computer programme which is used during presentations to show pieces of text, diagrams, drawings, movies, or

other objects.

Practice

Controlled practice, restricted practice

When learners use the target language repeatedly and productively in situations in which they have little or no

choice of what language they use. The teacher and learners focus on accurate use of the target language.

Less controlled, freer practice, free practice

When learners use the target language but have more choice of what they say and what language they use.

► Pragmatic: see meaning.

Praise

To tell someone they have done well, e.g. That’s excellent. Well done!

Prediction noun, predict verb

A technique or learning strategy learners can use to help with listening or reading. Learners think about the topic

before they read or listen. They try to imagine what the topic will be or what they are going to read about or listen to,

using clues like headlines or pictures accompanying the text or their general knowledge about the text type or topic.

This makes it easier for them to understand what they read or hear.

Prefix

A prefix is a letter or group of letters added to the beginning of a word to make a new word, e.g. clear – unclear. See

affix and suffix.

Preposition

A word used before a noun, pronoun or gerund to connect it to another word, e.g. He was in the garden.

Dependent preposition – Many nouns, verbs and adjectives are followed by a particular preposition. These

prepositions are dependent prepositions, e.g. interested in, depend on, bored with.

Present perfect simple and continuous, progressive: see tense.

Present simple and continuous, progressive: see tense.

Presentation noun, present verb

1. When the teacher introduces new language usually by focusing on it, often by using the board and speaking to the

whole class.

2. When a learner or learners gives a talk to their class or group.

Presentation, Practice and Production (PPP)

A way of teaching new language in which the teacher presents the language, gets learners to practise it in exercises

or other controlled practice activities and then asks learners to use or produce the same language in a communicative

and less controlled way.

Pre-teach (vocabulary)

Before introducing a text to learners, the teacher can teach key vocabulary from the text which s/he thinks the

learners do not already know and which is necessary for them to understand the main points of a text.

Primary stress: see stress.

Prioritising: see ranking, rank ordering.

Problem solving

Learners work in pairs or groups to find the solution to a problem. Problem-solving activities usually help to develop

oral fluency.

Procedure

The details of exactly what is going to happen in each stage of a lesson, e.g. learners practise the language of

complaints in a role-play in pairs.

Process noun + verb

To actively think about new information in order to understand it completely and be able to use it in future.

Process writing

An approach to writing, which thinks of writing as a process which includes different stages of writing such as

planning, drafting, re-drafting, editing, proofreading. See guided writing and product writing.

Product writing

An approach to writing which involves analysing and then reproducing models of particular text types. See guided

writing and process writing.

Productive skills

When learners produce language. Speaking and writing are productive skills. See receptive skills.

Proficiency noun, proficient adjective

Level of ability; to be very good at something because of training and practice, e.g. speaking English.

Proficiency test: see test.

Profile: see class, learner profile.

Progress test: see test.

Project work

An activity which focuses on completing an extended task or tasks on a specific topic. Learners may work in groups

to create something such as a class magazine. Learners sometimes do some work by themselves, sometimes

outside the classroom.

Prompt verb + noun

To help learners think of ideas or to remember a word or phrase by giving them a part of it or by giving another kind of

clue. When a teacher suggests a word that the learner hasn’t remembered, e.g.

Learner: I want to …… in an office.

Teacher: Work?

Learner: Yes, I want to work in an office.

A teacher can also use a word prompt to correct a learner, e.g.

Learner: He don’t like that.

Teacher: Grammar.

Learner: Sorry – he doesn’t like that. See elicit.

Prompt card: see cue card.

Pronoun

A word that replaces or refers to a noun or noun phrase just mentioned.

A demonstrative pronoun is a word which refers to a noun (phrase) and shows whether it is near or far from

the speaker, e.g. this, that, these, those.

An object pronoun is a word which replaces an object noun or an object noun phrase, e.g. him, her.

Personal pronouns are words, which are used instead of the name of a person, e.g. I (subject pronoun), me

(object pronoun).

A possessive pronoun is used to replace a noun and shows something belongs to someone, e.g. the house

is mine.

A reflexive pronoun is used when the object of a sentence refers to the same person or thing as the subject

of the sentence, e.g. He cut himself.

A relative pronoun introduces a relative clause, e.g. the book which I’m reading is interesting.

Proofread verb

To read a text in order to check whether there are any mistakes in spelling, grammar, punctuation etc. See process

writing.

Prop noun

An object used by the actors performing in a play or film. Teachers may give learners props to use when they are

doing a role play in class. See mask.

Proper noun: see noun.

Provide feedback: see feedback.

Punctuation

The symbols or marks used to organise writing into clauses, phrases and sentences to make the meaning clear.

Apostrophe - A punctuation mark (’). The ’ is added to a singular noun before an ‘s’ to show that something

belongs to someone, e.g. John’s house An apostrophe is also common in contractions, e.g. He’s (He is or

He has).

‘at’ symbol - A punctuation mark (@) used instead of ‘at’ in email addresses, e.g. john@yahoo.com

Comma - A punctuation mark (,) used to separate items in a list or to show where there is a pause in a

sentence, e.g. I bought some apples, oranges, bananas and lemons. When I went to the market, I met my

friend.

Exclamation mark - A punctuation mark (!) written after an exclamation, e.g. Be careful!

Full stop - A punctuation mark (.) used at the end of a sentence, e.g. I like chocolate.

Question mark - A punctuation mark (?) used in writing after a question, e.g. How are you?

Speech marks - Punctuation marks (‘x’) written before and after a word or a sentence to show that it is what

someone said, e.g. John said ‘My favourite subject is music.’

Pupil profile chart

A table or diagram used by teachers to record learners performance and progress in different skills during a course.

See chart, assessment chart/assessment profile.

Puppet

A model of a person or animal often made of paper or cloth, which a teacher or learners can move by putting their

hand inside. Puppets are often used when teaching young learners.

► Qualify verb

Used in grammatical descriptions to refer to words that limit the meaning of something, e.g. in the sentence

‘The young student sitting at the end of the row’, the underlined words qualify ‘student’.

Quantifier

A word or phrase such as much, few or a lot of which is used with a noun to show an amount, e.g. I don’t have much

time; I have a lot of books about music.

Question mark: see punctuation.

Question tag, tag question

A phrase that is added to the end of a sentence to make it a question, or to check that someone agrees with the

statement just made, e.g. It’s very cold, isn’t it? It isn’t very far, is it?

Raise awareness

To help learners to start to understand something that they may not already know by drawing attention to it.

For example, if you teach learning strategies, it can raise learners’ awareness of how to learn.

Ranking, rank ordering, prioritising rank verb

Putting things in order of importance. In the classroom, a prioritising or rank-ordering activity is a communicative

activity in which learners are given a list of things to rank (put in order of importance). It involves discussion,

agreeing/disagreeing and negotiating.

Rapport, build rapport

The relationship between the teacher and learners. Teachers try to build or create a good rapport or relationship with

their learners.

Rationale

The reason for doing something, e.g. the rationale for pre-teaching vocabulary before learners read a text is to help

learners read the text more easily. When teachers plan a lesson, they think about a rationale for activities and

procedures.

Read for detail: see detail.

Read for gist, global understanding: see gist.

Read for mood: see mood.

Realia

Real objects such as clothes, menus, timetables and leaflets that can be brought into the classroom for a range of

purposes.

Recall noun + verb

To remember, bring something back into the mind.

Recast

To reword a sentence or phrase to improve it, e.g.

Learner: I find myself unable to accept your statement.

Teacher: Oh, you don’t agree. Why not?

Teachers recast language which may not contain errors but which is inappropriate for the context it is being used in.

Compare with Reformulate.

Receptive skills

When learners do not have to produce language; listening and reading are receptive skills. See productive skills.

Recycle

To focus on words or structures that have been taught before, for revision and more practice.

Re-draft

When a piece of writing is changed with the intention of improving it. A writer’s first draft may be re-drafted.

See draft, process writing.

► Reduced relative clause

A relative clause in which the relative pronoun and possibly the auxiliary have been left out, e.g. in the

sentences The person I saw on the bus, (‘who’ is left out); The house hit by the storm (‘which was’ is left out).

Reference noun, refer to verb

To mention something or someone. Also, similar in meaning to comment. Learners can refer to someone or to

reference materials (e.g. a dictionary) to get advice or information.

Reference materials

The materials which teachers and learners can use to find or check information, e.g. grammar books, dictionaries or

CD-Roms.

Reflect on teaching, learning

To think about a lesson after teaching it or to think about learning in order to decide what worked, what did not work

and how to improve teaching/learning in the future.

Reflective (teachers)

Teachers who look back on the lessons they have taught and think about what worked and what did not work in order

to improve their teaching.

Reflector: see teacher role.

Reflexive pronoun: see pronoun.

Reformulation noun, reformulate verb

When a teacher corrects what a learner has said by repeating the sentence correctly, but without drawing the

learners’ attention to their mistake. This is usually the way parents ‘correct’ their young children’s language mistakes.

Compare with Recast.

Refuse an invitation: see decline an invitation.

Register

The formality or informality of the language used in a particular situation. Formal register or language is that used in

serious or important situations, e.g. in a job application. Informal register or language is that used in relaxed or

friendly situations, e.g. with family or friends. Register may also refer to language which is specific to a particular

group, e.g. technical register, scientific register.

Regular verb: see verb.

Reinforce: see consolidate.

Relative clause: see clause.

Relative pronoun: see pronoun.

Relevance noun, relevant adjective

The degree to which something is related to or useful in a situation.

► Repair strategy

An utterance which corrects or modifies what has just been said.

Repetition noun, repeat verb

To say something again, often for practice. This is often done in drills.

Report back verb

When a learner tells the whole class what was discussed in groupwork or pairwork.

Reported speech, statement, question

When someone’s words are reported by another person, e.g. She said she was sorry. See direct speech, question

and indirect question.

Reporting verb: see verb.

Request, make a (polite) request

To ask someone politely to do something, e.g. Please could you open the window?

Resources: see aids, reference materials, learning resources.

Response noun, respond verb

A reply or reaction to communication such as a laugh, a smile, saying something. Teachers and learners may

respond to each other in writing, speech or in the form of a facial expression.

Restricted practice: see practice.

Review noun + verb, revision noun, revise verb

When a learner, often guided by the teacher, looks again at language that has already been taught in order to

remember this language better. Teachers may choose to review vocabulary or grammatical structures in the

classroom, for example, in order to help learners consolidate the language or to prepare for a test.

Revise, revision: see review.

Note that American English usage of ‘revise’ implies editing, so it is better to use ‘review’ as many candidates for TKT

are from South America.

► Rhetorical question

A question that does not expect or require an answer, and often used to create interest e.g. Where have I put

my keys?

Rhyme

1. Words that sound similar because they have the same ending, e.g. hat, cat.

2. A song or poem with words that sound the same at the end of each line

I believe I can fly.

I believe I can touch the sky.

Rhythm

The rhythm of speech is the way that some words in a sentence are emphasised or stressed to produce a regular

pattern, e.g. If I were YOU, I’d go by BUS.

Role-play

A classroom activity in which learners are given roles to act out in a given situation, e.g. a job interview role-play

where one learner would be the interviewer and the other learner would be the interviewee. Role-plays are usually

done in pairs or groups.

Root word, base word

The core word or part of a word from which other words can be made by adding a prefix or suffix, e.g. photograph is

the root or base word of photographer and photographic. See core.

Routine

Something which is done regularly such as a teacher setting writing homework every Friday. Teachers try to develop

some routine habits in the classroom, e.g. always asking learners to record new words with their meaning and an

example sentence.

Rubric

Written instructions for an exercise, activity or task in a test.

Scaffolding

A term originally used to refer to teacher talk that supports pupils in carrying out activities and helps them to solve

problems. Examples include simplifying tasks by breaking them down into smaller steps; keeping pupils focused on

completing the task by reminding them of what the goal is; showing other ways of doing tasks. Scaffolding also

includes support strategies for writing and speaking, examples of which are the use of substitution tables and

language frames. Scaffolding is temporary support which is gradually taken away so that learners can eventually

work without it.

Scan

To read a text quickly to pick out specific information, e.g. finding a phone number in a phone book. See detail, gist,

global understanding, skim.

Scheme of work

A basic plan of what a teacher will teach for a number of lessons. Its aim is to try to ensure that lessons fit logically

together, to give the teacher clear goals and to try to ensure a balance of language, skills, topics and activities over a

number of weeks or months.

Schwa

The / W / sound is called the schwa. It is a feature of many weak forms, e.g. / kWn / in I can play tennis.

Script

A set of letters used for writing a particular language, e.g. Arabic script, Cyrillic script, Roman script.

Seating arrangement, seating plan

The way the learners sit in the classroom, e.g. in rows, in a circle around the teacher, in groups around different

tables. A plan of where the learners should sit in the classroom.

Second conditional: see conditional (forms).

Second person: see person.

Secondary stress: see stress.

Self-access centre, learning centre

A place with learning resources such as books, computers and cassettes where learners can study by themselves.

Self-assessment: see assessment.

Self-correction: see correction.

Self-monitor: see monitor.

► Semantic: see meaning.

► Semi-modal

A verb that has a modal meaning but does not have all the grammatical features of modal verbs. Examples of

semi-modals are ought to, be able to, used to.

Sentence completion

A task-type in which learners are given parts of a sentence, e.g. the beginning or the end, and are asked to complete

the sentence, using specific target language, e.g. At the weekend, I love … ; In the evenings, I enjoy … .

Sentence dominoes

A pair or group game in which learners match half-sentences, in order to make full sentences. They do this by taking

turns to join dominoes which, in the context of language teaching, are typically single pieces of paper with 2 half

sentences on them, at either end of other dominoes. e.g. …midnight / I went to university in … would match with I

went to bed at /…six years. As the game continues, learners develop a line of sentences.

Sentence level

Looking at the language features of a text which are produced in sentences. Examples include use of imperative

forms, use of cause and effect clauses or examples in a sentence. See word level and text level.

Sentence starter, sentence stem

The beginning of a sentence which learners then complete orally or in writing. A type of scaffolding strategy,

e.g. I like ….., I love…..

Sentence stress: see stress.

Sentence transformation

A task-type in which learners are given a sentence and a prompt, and have to make a second sentence using the

prompt so that it means the same as the first, e.g.

It’s too cold to play tennis.

It ____________ to play tennis. (enough)

It isn’t warm enough to play tennis.

► Separable phrasal verb

A phrasal verb in which the particle can be separated from the verb, e.g. He looked up a word. / He looked a

word up. See phrasal verb.

Sequence noun + verb

A sequence is a series of things, which follow each other in a logical order. Learners can sequence pictures in a

story, i.e. put them in order.

Set a question, task, test

To give learners a question to answer or a task or test to do.

Set the scene, the context

To explain or present the context of something learners will read, hear, talk or write about, to make the situation clear

for them, e.g. before playing a recording a teacher might tell learners who the people are on the recording and where

they are.

Settler noun

An activity used to quieten and calm children perhaps done after a more lively activity. For example, a piece of

copying or quiet drawing or colouring in. See stirrer.

Silent letter

A letter in a word which is written but which does not influence the pronunciation, e.g. in thumb, the letter b is a silent

letter.

Silent period

The time when learners who are beginning to learn a first (or second) language prefer to listen (or read) before

producing the language, e.g. babies have a silent period when they listen to their parents before starting to try to

speak themselves.

Simplify verb, simplification noun

To make something easier. Simplifying language or tasks is a common scaffolding strategy, for example.

Singular noun: see noun.

Situational presentation

A way of presenting new language through a simple story or situation. The teacher may use pictures or other aids to

help him/her create the situation.

Skills

The four language skills are listening, speaking, reading and writing. See develop skills, subskills, receptive skills,

productive skills.

Skim

To read a text quickly to get a general idea of what it is about. See detail, gist, global understanding.

Slip: see error.

Smiley

A picture of a happy face☺. Teachers can use a smiley to point out good features of learners’ written work. Learners

can use a smiley to indicate strengths or progress in their own English, or to show features of a lesson they enjoyed.

Solution noun, solve verb

An answer to a problem.

Specification noun, to specify (aims) verb, specific adjective

A clear and exact description of something, e.g. aims. Aims are specified at the beginning of a lesson plan and for

individual stages in the lesson.

Speculate

To guess something based on information you have, e.g. She might have time to go to the bookshop, but I’m not sure.

Speech marks: see punctuation.

Stage, step

A section of a lesson. Lessons work through different stages or steps such as lead-in, presentation, controlled

practice etc.

Stage aim: see aim.

► State (stative) verbs

Verbs which describe a state or situation rather than an action. They tend not to be used in the progressive/

continuous e.g. to want, to contain.

Step: see stage.

Sticker

A label with a picture or message on it that has ‘glue’ on the back of it. Teachers may use stickers to keep things on

the classroom wall or on the board.

Stimulate discussion

To encourage learners to talk about something. This can be done in different ways such as through a text or a

picture.

Stimulate interest: see arouse interest.

Stirrer noun

A lively activity teachers use to activate children in class. For example, a mingle or an action game. See settler.

Storyboard

To show the events in a story sometimes with speech and thoughts or short text.

Storybook

A book with stories for children.

Story corner

A permanent space in the classroom where learners can tell each other stories or sit quietly and read stories.

Stress

Contrastive stress is used to express an unusual or emphatic meaning in a sentence. It involves stressing

the important word according to the different meanings, e.g. It was my AUNT who bought the car (not my

uncle) or My aunt bought the CAKE (not the biscuits)!

Primary, main stress

The main stress on a word, e.g. DIFFicult, indiVIDual. The primary stress on a word is marked in the

dictionary as follows 'difficult.

Secondary stress is stress on a syllable or word in a sentence that is less strong than the primary (main)

stress, e.g. / »kÅntrW«váÄâWl / which has the primary or main stress on / váÄ / and the secondary stress on / kÅn /

Sentence stress refers to the way some words in a sentence are stressed. In English these are usually the

information-carrying words. In the sentence It was a lovely evening, and the temperature was perfect, the

main stress, when spoken, is probably on the word perfect. Stress can therefore be used to show meaning,

to emphasise a particular point or feeling.

Word stress is the pronunciation of a syllable with more force or emphasis than the surrounding syllables

which are said to be unstressed, e.g. umbrella / √m«brelW /.

Strong form

In connected speech many words are not pronounced fully. For example, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, pronouns and

conjunctions are usually not pronounced fully and are not stressed. When these words (weak forms) are pronounced

fully and are stressed to emphasise a point they become strong forms, e.g. I don’t speak Italian but I can /kæn/

speak a little Spanish in an emergency. See weak form.

Structural approach

A way of teaching which uses a syllabus based on grammatical structures. The order in which the language is

presented is usually based on how difficult it is thought to be.

► Style

A characteristic way of conveying information e.g. humorous, journalistic, casual, business-like.

Subject

This is the noun or phrase that goes before the verb to show who is doing the action in an active sentence,

e.g. John plays tennis every Saturday, or who or what the action is done to in a passive sentence, e.g. The food was

cooked yesterday. See object.

Subjective test: see test.

Subject-verb agreement

When the form of the verb matches the person doing the action of the verb, e.g. I walk, he walks. If a learner writes

I walks, then it is wrong because there is no subject-verb agreement.

Subordinate clause: see clause.

► Subordinating conjunction

A conjunction that links a main clause with a subordinate clause e.g. though, while, because.

Subsidiary aim: see aim.

Subskill

Each of the four language skills can be divided into smaller subskills that are all part of the main skill, e.g. identifying

text organisation (reading); identifying word stress (listening). See detail, gist, global understanding, scan, skim

► Substitution

Replacing words, phrases or clauses in discourse with another word or words to achieve cohesion e.g. in the

sentence ‘Bill is going to university next year, and Jim is too’, ‘too’ substitutes for ‘going to university next year’.

Substitution drill: see drill.

Substitution table

A grid giving a choice of grammatical forms:

I

You go Do you

He/she/it goes Does he/she/it

We

You

They

go

to work by car.

Do you/they

go by car?

Suffix

A suffix is a letter or group of letters added at the end of a word to make a new word, e.g. good – goodness. See

affix and prefix.

Summary noun, summarise verb

To take out the main points of a long text, and rewrite or retell them in a short, clear way.

Summative assessment: see assessment.

Summative test: see test.

Superlative adjective: see adjective.

► Superordinate

A general word which is the name for a category/ type of thing, e.g. vehicle is the superordinate for car, bus,

train, bike etc; job is the superordinate for postman, teacher, computer scientist, politician etc.

Supplementary material noun, supplement verb

The books and other materials which teachers can use in addition to a coursebook, e.g. pronunciation practice

materials.

Supportive adjective

Providing help or encouragement. The opposite of supportive is unsupportive. Effective teachers create a

supportive atmosphere in their classes.

Survey noun

An activity in which learners find out information from others by asking questions or using questionnaires in order to

practise speaking skills and/or specific language.

Swap verb

To change one thing for another, e.g. in class a teacher could ask learners to swap partners so that they can work

with someone different.

Syllable

A part of a word that usually contains a single vowel sound, e.g. pen = one syllable; teacher = two syllables –

teach/er; umbrella = three syllables – um/brell/a.

Syllabus

This describes the language and skills to be covered on a course, and the order in which they will be taught. See

curriculum.

Syllabus fit

How a lesson fits in with the syllabus; how a lesson fulfils the syllabus requirements. See timetable fit.

Synonym

A word which has the same, or nearly the same, meaning as another word, e.g. nice is a synonym of pleasant.

► Syntax

A description of the grammatical patterns that join words together into sentences.

Tag question: see question tag.

Take notes: see note-taking.

Take risks

When learners take risks they experiment with language.

Tapescript, audio script, transcript

The written version of the words learners hear when doing a listening activity. These can often be found in a

teacher’s book or at the back of the learner’s book.

Target: see goal.

Target language

1. The language which is the focus of the lesson or a part of the lesson. It could be grammar, lexis, functions or

pronunciation.

2. The language being studied (often called the L2).

Target language culture

The traditions and culture of the country whose language is being studied.

Task

An activity that learners complete. For example, problem-solving activities or information-gap activities are tasks. A

task usually focuses on communication. Task may also be used as another word for activity. See Task-based

Learning (TBL).

Task-based Learning (TBL)

A way of teaching in which the teacher gives learners meaningful tasks to do. After this the teacher may ask learners

to think about the language they used while doing the tasks, but the main focus for learners is on the task itself.

Project work is often task-based.

Task-type

A set of questions that are all of one kind, e.g. multiple choice, gap-fill, matching.

Teacher-centred

When the teacher is seen as the source of all knowledge in the learning process and acts as the provider of

knowledge rather than making use of the knowledge and experience of the students to guide the learning

process. See learner-centred.

Teacher role

Teacher role refers to the different functions a teacher can have in a class and the different ways a teacher can

manage the classroom and the learners, e.g. a teacher can choose to take a controlling role, giving directions or

instructions at the front of the class or to take a less controlling role, monitoring learners as they work.

Teacher roles include:

Assessor

Assessing learners’ performance, behaviour, effort and contribution. Checking understanding, Evaluating

learners’ performance, behaviour, and contribution. Testing learner progress and level. Providing feedback

on work, progress, behaviour and contribution.

Contributor

Contributing ideas or information other than language, e.g. participating in discussions.

Counsellor

Giving learners advice on difficulties they may have outside of their language class. Showing understanding

of issues learners bring to the classroom from outside.

Diagnostician

Diagnosing, evaluating learners’ needs and difficulties.

Facilitator

Developing learner autonomy. Enabling learners to fulfil their potential. Helping learners to access

resources. Providing opportunities for individual learning.

Language resource

Clarifying language. Correcting learner language. Consolidating learner language. Contextualising

language. Eliciting language. Explaining language. Modelling language. Personalising language.

Providing language input.

Manager

Managing the learners, the lessons and procedures in the classroom, e.g. Controlling the group dynamic.

Deciding on interaction patterns. Demonstrating tasks and activities. Developing rapport. Encouraging

learners. Giving instructions. Motivating learners. Praising learners. Maintaining discipline. Responding

to classroom problems as they happen.

Monitor/Observer

Monitoring, observing and collecting information about learner performance, behaviour, contribution and

effort and progress. Keeping a written record of learners’ work.

Narrator

Narrating stories and things that have happened.

Planner

Anticipating problems. Deciding on a methodology for lessons. Designing and adapting texts and materials

for lessons. Preparing texts and tasks for learners. Selecting materials and texts for lessons.

Reflector

Thinking about his/her own performance. Reflecting on learners’ progress.

Teacher’s book: see book.

Tense

A form of the verb that shows whether something happens in the past, present or future.

Future with going to

I’m going to visit my aunt on Sunday. It’s going to rain.

Future with present continuous

He is meeting John for dinner at eight tomorrow.

Future with present simple

The plane leaves at 9.00 next Saturday.

Future with will or shall

I’ll help with the cleaning. It will be lovely and sunny tomorrow

Past continuous, progressive

I was watching TV all evening.

Past perfect continuous, progressive

I had been studying for three hours so I felt tired.

Past perfect simple

After I had phoned Mary, I went out.

Past simple

I went on holiday to France last year.

Present continuous, progressive

I am working in London now.

Present perfect continuous, progressive

I have been studying for three years.

Present perfect simple

I have known him for a long time.

Present simple

He drives to work every day.

Test

A formal assessment of a learner’s language.

An achievement test is used to see how well learners have learned the language and skills taught in class.

Achievement tests are often at the end of term or end of the year and test the main points of what has been

taught in that time.

A diagnostic test is used to identify problems that learners have with language or skills. The teacher

diagnoses the language problems learners have. It can also be used to diagnose learner strengths. It helps

the teacher to plan what to teach, or what not to teach, in future.

An objective test is marked without using the examiner’s opinion, e.g. true/false questions, multiple-choice

questions. There is a clear right answer.

A placement test is often used at the beginning of a course in a language school in order to identify

a learner’s level of language and find the best class for them.

A proficiency test is used to see how good learners are at using the target language. The contents of a

proficiency test are not chosen according to what has been taught, but according to what is needed for a

particular purpose, e.g. English for hotel receptionists, English for studying at university, English for general

communication. Cambridge ESOL First Certificate in English (FCE) and IELTS are examples of proficiency

tests.

A progress test is used during a course in order to assess the learning up to a particular point in the course.

A subjective test is marked using the examiner’s opinion about the quality of the answer. The answer is not

simply right or wrong, e.g. marking written stories, compositions, interviews, conversations, story-telling.

A summative test is used at the end of a course. The focus is on the mark or grade given and feedback is

not usually provided. See formative assessment.

Test-teach-test

A way of teaching new language. The teacher asks learners to do a task to see how well they know a certain piece of

language (this is the first test). The teacher then presents the new language to the learners (teach), then asks the

learners to do another task using the new language correctly (this is the second test). This way of approaching

teaching target language can be helpful if the teacher thinks the learners may already know some of the target

language. It helps the teacher diagnose what the learners need to learn so that s/he can focus only on what learners

need to learn in the presentation (teach) stage.

Text level

The discourse features of a text. In an instruction text, for example, these would include: a statement about what is to

be made, a list of items needed, steps written in chronological order, use of visuals or diagrams, etc. See word level

and sentence level.

Text structure

The way a text is organised. For example, an essay typically has an introduction, a main section and a conclusion.

Text type

Texts that have specific features, e.g. layout, use of language, that make them part of a recognisable type of text,

e.g. letters, emails, news reports.

Textbook: see book.

Theme noun, thematic adjective

The main subject of a conversation, a text or a lesson.

Thesaurus: see dictionary.

Third conditional: see conditional (forms).

Third person: see person.

Time expression

A word or phrase that indicates time, such as after, last weekend, e.g. I will meet you after the lesson.

Timeline

A diagram that shows learners the relationship between tense and time. It is often used in language teaching to

present the use of a new tense or to correct learners when they use tenses wrongly, e.g.

Past Now Future

---------------------------------------

Present perfect tense See tense.

Timetable fit

How a lesson fits logically into a sequence of lessons; how what goes before a particular lesson links to, and helps

learners with, the following lesson.

Timing

The likely time different activities or stages in a lesson plan should take. When teachers plan lessons, they think

about how long each activity will take and they usually write this on their plan.

Topic

The subject of a text or lesson.

Topic sentence

A sentence that gives the main point or subject of a paragraph. This is usually the opening sentence in a paragraph.

Total Physical Response (TPR)

A way of teaching in which the teacher presents language items in instructions and the learners have to do exactly

what the teacher tells them, e.g. Open the window. Stand up.

Trace

To copy a picture by putting transparent paper on top of it and following the lines with your pencil.

Train verb

To teach someone to do a particular job or activity. For example, John trains people to sing. It also means to study or

learn to do something. For example, I trained to be a teacher.

Trainee

Someone learning to do a particular job or activity. For example, a trainee teacher is someone learning to be a

teacher.

Trainer

Someone whose job it is to teach people how to do a job. For example, a teacher trainer trains people to become

teachers.

Transcript: see tapescript.

Transformation drill: see drill.

Transitive

Is used to describe a verb which takes a direct object, e.g. She wrote a letter. See intransitive.

True/false questions

A task-type in which learners read or listen to a text and decide whether statements are correct (true) or not correct

(false).

Turn, turn-taking

When someone speaks in a conversation this is called a turn. Speaking and then allowing another person to speak in

reply is called ‘turn-taking’.

Tutorial

When a teacher talks to a learner individually or to a small group of learners to discuss their learning and give

feedback on their progress in class.

Uncountable noun: see noun.

Unmotivated: see motivation.

Unsupportive

Not being helpful or encouraging. See supportive.

Unvoiced sound

To produce an unvoiced sound, no voice is used, e.g. /p/ in pad, /t/ in tomorrow. No movement or vibration can be felt

in the throat. See voiced sound.

Used to

A structure that shows something happened in the past but does not happen now, e.g. I used to live in London, but

now I live in Paris.

Utterance

A complete unit of speech in spoken language. An utterance can be shorter than a sentence, e.g. A: When’s he

coming? B: Tomorrow. ‘Tomorrow’ is an utterance here.

Varieties of English

English is spoken as a first or second language in many countries around the world, but the English spoken may be

slightly or significantly different in each country or in different parts of one country, e.g. different vocabulary or

grammar may be used. An example of this is the English spoken in the USA and that spoken in the UK.

Variety noun, vary verb

To introduce different things such as different types of activities or tasks, language skills, interaction patterns, pacing

or timing into a lesson. Teachers try to include variety in their lesson, so that learners stay interested.

► Velar

The adjective from velum (the soft palate).Velar sounds are made by moving the tongue towards the velum. Examples

of these sounds in English are: /k/, /g/

Venn diagram

A drawing of circles that cross over each other showing the similarities and differences between two or three objects,

people, concepts, places. They are also used to show a whole set of items and a sub-set of those items, e.g.

See pie chart.

Verb

A word used to show an action, state, event or process, e.g. I like cheese; He speaks Italian.

An auxiliary verb is a verb used with other verbs to make questions, negatives, tenses, etc. e.g. be, do,

have.

The base form of a verb is the infinitive form of a verb without ‘to’, e.g. go.

The infinitive form is the base form of a verb with ‘to’. It is used after another verb, after an adjective or

noun or as the subject or object of a sentence, e.g. 'I want to study.’, ‘It’s difficult to understand.’

An irregular verb does not follow the same pattern as regular verbs. Each irregular verb has its own way of

forming the past simple and past participle, e.g. go  went (past simple)  gone (past participle).

A modal verb is a verb used with other verbs to show ideas such as ability or obligation or possibility. They

include can, must, will, should, e.g. I can speak French, but I should study even harder.

A multiword verb is made up of a verb and one or more particles (adverbs and/or prepositions). The

meaning of a multiword verb is not the same as the meaning of the individual verbs and participles that make

it. One multiword verb may have more than one meaning, e.g. Get your coat on and then we can leave

(wear), How are you getting on with that job (progressing). See: phrasal verb.

A phrasal verb is a type of multiword verb which is made up of a verb + an adverb particle, e.g. look after – A

mother looks after her children. See: multiword verb.

A regular verb changes its forms by adding -ed in the past simple and past participle, e.g. walk  walked.

A reporting verb is a verb such as tell, advise, suggest used in reported speech to report what someone has

said, e.g. Jane advised John to study harder.

► See dynamic verbs, finite verb, non-finite verb, semi modal, separable phrasal verb, state (stative) verb,

verbs of perception.

Verb pattern

The form of the words following the verb, e.g. He advised me to get there early. (advise + object pronoun + to + base

form).

► Verb phrase

The part of a sentence containing a main verb and any other verbs that qualify it, e.g. He must have heard me;

Those fantastic things couldn’t have been made by machine.

► Verbs of perception

Verbs related to the senses or emotions, e.g. hear, see, smell, taste, feel. These verbs follow distinctive

grammatical patterns.

Version

A particular form of something in which some details are different from an earlier or later form of it, e.g. a written text

may have different versions.

Video clip: see clip.

Visual aid

A picture, a diagram or anything else the learners can look at which can help teachers illustrate form or meaning. See

aids, realia.

Visual learner: see learning style.

Visualisation noun, visualise verb

To form a mental picture of something. Visualisation can help learners to remember new words or can be used for

creative story-telling. A classroom activity where learners close their eyes and create mental images.

Vocabulary: see lexis.

Voiced sound

To produce a voiced sound, the voice is used, e.g. /b/ in bad, /d/ in dentist. Movement or vibration can be felt in the

throat. Vowels in English are voiced. See unvoiced sound.

Volunteer noun + verb

A learner who offers to help the teacher in class, for example by answering a question, handing out books or cleaning

the board.

Vowel

A sound in which the air is not blocked by the tongue, lips, teeth etc. Movement or vibration is felt in the throat

because the voice is used. The letters a, e, i, o, u and sometimes y are used to represent these sounds.

See consonant and diphthong.

Wait time

The time that teachers wait in order to give learners time to respond to questions rather than expecting an immediate

response.

Warmer noun, warm up verb

An activity that a teacher uses at the beginning of a lesson to give the class more energy. See energy levels.

Weak form

If a word is unstressed, the weak form of vowels may be used, e.g. I can (/ kWn /) speak Italian, French, English and

Spanish. The sound / W / is called schwa. See strong form.

Wh- question

Wh- questions start with a wh- word. Wh- questions expect information in reply; not just yes or no, e.g. Where do you

live? I live in France.

Wh- word

Wh- words introduce wh- questions and indirect questions. Wh- words include who, whom, what, which, whose, how,

why, where, when.

Whole class: see open class.

Word bank

A list of key words required for learning subject concepts which can be used to pre-teach, to support input and to help

learners remember key subject vocabulary.

Word boundary

Where one word ends and the next one begins, especially in connected speech.

Word class

One of the grammatical groups into which words are divided depending on their use, such as noun, verb and

adjective.

Word family

A group of words that come from the same root or base word, e.g. economy, economist, economic. See root word,

base word.

Word level

Looking at language features of a text at a word level includes looking at the use of technical vocabulary, adjectives,

quantities. See sentence level and text level.

Word map, mind map

A diagram which is used to make a visual record of vocabulary on the same topic, e.g.

car bus

transport

train plane

Word prompt: see prompt.

Word snake

A reading or writing activity involving words written in the shape of a snake. Each new word begins with the first letter

of the previous word, e.g. Dog giraffe elephant tiger.

Word stress: see stress.

Wordsearch

A grid in which each square has a letter of the alphabet. Words are hidden in the grid and learners have to find them.

Work out

When learners try to understand how and why a particular piece of language is used or how it is formed. For

example, learners read a text with different past tenses then look at the example sentences in the text and work out

how the different tenses are used and how they are formed. See deduce meaning from context.

Workbook: see book.

Worksheet: see handout.

Written fluency: see fluency.